Behavioral Sciences4. There are two general categories into which theories of personality can be divided. a. Trait theories emphasize the existence of various characteristics or traits in relative proportion to one another. Many trait theories concentrate on a major characteristic that can be placed on a continuum between extremes. For example, extroversion versus introversion, warm versus cold, anxious versus calm, ete. b. Character theories emphasize interactions among theoretical parts of the mind or between the individual and social influences. The most widely known and influential character theory is Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which is concerned with internal processes (largely unconscious) and how the interaction of various theoretical divisions of the mind determine personality. This theory has formed the basis of psychodynamic formulations of normal personality, psychopathology, and nonpharmacologic interventions for disordered behavior.SPECIFIC THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENTA. Psychodynamic formulations. All are based in Freud's psychoanalytic formulations.1. Stages of development. There are five stages in Freud's model of development. "Sexual" (libidinal) drives motivate behavior; at each stage libidinal energy is focused on a particular part of the body. Freud's psychosexual model posits that early childhood psychosexual-emotional experiences during the different stages profoundly affect later personality development.a. Oral stage (0-1 year). During this stage, infants use their mouths to satisfy not only their nutritional hunger, but their libidinal and aggressive impulses as well. If the infant is not satisfied or is overindulged during the first year of life, there will be an unsuccessful resolution of this stage.(1) The theory links "oral" disorders with difficulty in this stage. Such disordersinclude drug addiction, excessive eating (obesity), smoking, and traits such as sarcasm and cynicism. (2) A disturbance in the oral stage is also sometimes invoked to explain primitive personalities with low frustration tolerance, impulsivity, and affective instability. b. Anal stage (2-3 years). During this stage, retention and elimination of feces are sources of gratification. However, they are also supposed to form a battleground upon which struggles over obedience and defiance are fought. The classic obsessional character demonstrates traits that are thought to be related to unsuccessful resolution of this stage: procrastination, indecision, isolation of affect, and obsession with maintaining control. These individuals may be either excessively prim and orderly, excessively sloppy and wasteful, or a mix of both. e. Oedipal stage (3-6 years). In this stage, there is competition with the same-sexed parent for their role with the opposite-sexed parent. This is successfully resolved by identification with the same-sexed parent. Hysteria, sexual inhibitions, and fear of success reflect unresolved oedipal conflicts. d. Latency stage (age 7 to puberty). Libidinal energy is submerged (nonlocalized), so there are fewer potential developmental problems. The child's attention can be redirected toward learning and mastering skills. e. Genital stage (puberty through adulthood). If the child has successfully navigated the previous four stages, sexual gratification, productive work, and stable family life are negotiated in the genital stage.164meClical
